Urban Disease Outbreak Spreads Fear in Metropolis
Smallpox: The Rise and Resistance of the Vaccine
Smallpox, a disease notorious for its devastating impact on human populations throughout history, is often heralded as the first major success of modern-day vaccination. However, the story of Edward Jenner and his pioneering work in developing a smallpox vaccine is marked by resistance and controversy, much of which revolved around religious, medical, and social concerns. A closer examination of this contentious time reveals the complexities and obstacles that Jenner and his allies faced in efforts to promote vaccination and conquer the disease.
Smallpox, more lethal than malaria, cholera, or bubonic plague, ravaged countless civilizations, from Egyptian and Hittite empires to the Greeks, Romans, Ottomans, and Chinese. The virus manifested initially with flu-like symptoms, followed by speckles and pustules on the skin—including the face. One-third of victims died within weeks, leaving survivors with lifelong pockmarks and often blind. The disease swept through both palaces and slums, decimating entire populations in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with the Old World surviving relatively unscathed compared to the near-extinction of native populations in the New World.
The only known method for preventing smallpox was inoculation, a practice originating in medieval India and China, where doctors collected pus or scabs from smallpox patients and introduced this matter into healthy individuals. The process, rife with uncertainty, sometimes resulted in a full-blown case of smallpox in the inoculee. Faced with such risks, many families agonized over whether to vaccinate their loved ones. Benjamin Franklin grappled with this decision, ultimately losing his four-year-old son Francis to smallpox while he hesitated.
In the early 1790s, Edward Jenner, a doctor in rural England, proposed a revolutionary solution: using cowpox, a mild infection resembling smallpox, to confer immunity. Inspired by the observation that milkmaids rarely contracted smallpox, Jenner successfully vaccinated 22 patients, including a young boy named James Phipps, using material from a cow named Blossom, who had caught the disease from a milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes. Phipps recovered from the subsequent mild illness, demonstrating immunity to smallpox. Jenner published his findings in 1798, but the Royal Society of London initially refused to print his treatise, expressing concern over insufficient data and the potential to harm his reputation.
While vaccination proved effective against smallpox, its acceptance faced fierce opposition from powerful figures in the medical establishment and the broader public. The anti-vaccination movement, spearheaded by Dr. Benjamin Moseley, focused on the safety and unnaturalness of the procedure. Newspapers and cartoonists depicted vaccination clinics as scenes straight out of Greek mythology, with heaps of diseased babies and patients sprouting hooves and horns. Such fears and misconceptions led to significant resistance, even as doctors throughout the British Empire worked tirelessly to promote vaccines.
Jenner and his supporters countered this opposition by citing statistical evidence, using personal testimonies, and seeking help from influential figures such as the king and powerful aristocrats. The establishment of the Royal Jennerian Society further bolstered efforts to promote vaccination. In the end, it took more than medical science to vanquish the speckled monster; it took perseverance, persuasion, and the tireless efforts of everyday heroes such as Dr. Alexander Robertson, whose story continues to inspire modern efforts to demystify vaccines and ensure their widespread acceptance.
Today, a team of historians, designers, and programmers at the NEH’s Office of Digital Humanities is developing a role-playing video game, "Pox and the City," to immerse players in the historical context of the smallpox wars. The game aims to capture the struggles of Jenner and the everyday people—doctors, immigrants, and even the smallpox virus itself—in their quest for greater understanding and a way to combat the disease. While scientific advances may seem self-evident to us today, "Pox and the City" demonstrates the challenges and vigorous debate that once accompanied these breakthroughs.
Digital humanities scholars are creating a role-playing game, "Pox and the City," to simulate the historical context of the smallpox wars. The game will highlight the challenges and debates faced by Edward Jenner and other individuals in the fight against smallpox, showcasing the complexities of primary sources in the realm of science, medical-conditions, health-and-wellness, and digital humanities.
Players in "Pox and the City" will confront the same obstacles that Jenner faced, such as religious, medical, and social resistance from critics like Dr. Benjamin Moseley, who questioned the safety and unnaturalness of the smallpox vaccine. This game will serve as an interactive primary source, affording players a unique opportunity to experience the trials and triumphs of one of history's most significant scientific achievements.
